/*
    * Licensed to the Apache Software Foundation (ASF) under one or more
    * contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file distributed with
    * this work for additional information regarding copyright ownership.
    * The ASF licenses this file to You under the Apache License, Version 2.0
    * (the "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance with
    * the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
    *
    *      https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
   *
   * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
   * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
   * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
   * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
   * limitations under the License.
   */
  
  /*
   * This is not the original file distributed by the Apache Software Foundation
   * It has been modified by the Hipparchus project
   */
  
  package org.hipparchus.stat.inference;
  
  import java.math.RoundingMode;
  import java.util.Arrays;
  import java.util.HashSet;
  
  import org.hipparchus.distribution.RealDistribution;
  import org.hipparchus.exception.LocalizedCoreFormats;
  import org.hipparchus.exception.MathIllegalArgumentException;
  import org.hipparchus.exception.MathIllegalStateException;
  import org.hipparchus.exception.MathRuntimeException;
  import org.hipparchus.fraction.BigFraction;
  import org.hipparchus.fraction.BigFractionField;
  import org.hipparchus.linear.Array2DRowFieldMatrix;
  import org.hipparchus.linear.FieldMatrix;
  import org.hipparchus.linear.MatrixUtils;
  import org.hipparchus.linear.RealMatrix;
  import org.hipparchus.random.RandomDataGenerator;
  import org.hipparchus.random.RandomGenerator;
  import org.hipparchus.stat.LocalizedStatFormats;
  import org.hipparchus.util.FastMath;
  import org.hipparchus.util.MathArrays;
  import org.hipparchus.util.MathUtils;
  
  /**
   * Implementation of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov-Smirnov_test">
   * Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test</a> for equality of continuous distributions.
   * <p>
   * The K-S test uses a statistic based on the maximum deviation of the empirical distribution of
   * sample data points from the distribution expected under the null hypothesis. For one-sample tests
   * evaluating the null hypothesis that a set of sample data points follow a given distribution, the
   * test statistic is \(D_n=\sup_x |F_n(x)-F(x)|\), where \(F\) is the expected distribution and
   * \(F_n\) is the empirical distribution of the \(n\) sample data points. The distribution of
   * \(D_n\) is estimated using a method based on [1] with certain quick decisions for extreme values
   * given in [2].
   * <p>
   * Two-sample tests are also supported, evaluating the null hypothesis that the two samples
   * {@code x} and {@code y} come from the same underlying distribution. In this case, the test
   * statistic is \(D_{n,m}=\sup_t | F_n(t)-F_m(t)|\) where \(n\) is the length of {@code x}, \(m\) is
   * the length of {@code y}, \(F_n\) is the empirical distribution that puts mass \(1/n\) at each of
   * the values in {@code x} and \(F_m\) is the empirical distribution of the {@code y} values. The
   * default 2-sample test method, {@link #kolmogorovSmirnovTest(double[], double[])} works as
   * follows:
   * <ul>
   * <li>For small samples (where the product of the sample sizes is less than
   * {@link #LARGE_SAMPLE_PRODUCT}), the method presented in [4] is used to compute the
   * exact p-value for the 2-sample test.</li>
   * <li>When the product of the sample sizes exceeds {@link #LARGE_SAMPLE_PRODUCT}, the asymptotic
   * distribution of \(D_{n,m}\) is used. See {@link #approximateP(double, int, int)} for details on
   * the approximation.</li>
   * </ul>
   * <p>
   * If the product of the sample sizes is less than {@link #LARGE_SAMPLE_PRODUCT} and the sample
   * data contains ties, random jitter is added to the sample data to break ties before applying
   * the algorithm above. Alternatively, the {@link #bootstrap(double[], double[], int, boolean)}
   * method, modeled after <a href="http://sekhon.berkeley.edu/matching/ks.boot.html">ks.boot</a>
   * in the R Matching package [3], can be used if ties are known to be present in the data.
   * <p>
   * In the two-sample case, \(D_{n,m}\) has a discrete distribution. This makes the p-value
   * associated with the null hypothesis \(H_0 : D_{n,m} \ge d \) differ from \(H_0 : D_{n,m} &gt; d \)
   * by the mass of the observed value \(d\). To distinguish these, the two-sample tests use a boolean
   * {@code strict} parameter. This parameter is ignored for large samples.
   * <p>
   * The methods used by the 2-sample default implementation are also exposed directly:
   * <ul>
   * <li>{@link #exactP(double, int, int, boolean)} computes exact 2-sample p-values</li>
   * <li>{@link #approximateP(double, int, int)} uses the asymptotic distribution The {@code boolean}
   * arguments in the first two methods allow the probability used to estimate the p-value to be
   * expressed using strict or non-strict inequality. See
   * {@link #kolmogorovSmirnovTest(double[], double[], boolean)}.</li>
   * </ul>
   * <p>
   * References:
   * <ul>
   * <li>[1] <a href="http://www.jstatsoft.org/v08/i18/"> Evaluating Kolmogorov's Distribution</a> by
   * George Marsaglia, Wai Wan Tsang, and Jingbo Wang</li>
   * <li>[2] <a href="http://www.jstatsoft.org/v39/i11/"> Computing the Two-Sided Kolmogorov-Smirnov
  * Distribution</a> by Richard Simard and Pierre L'Ecuyer</li>
  * <li>[3] Jasjeet S. Sekhon. 2011. <a href="http://www.jstatsoft.org/article/view/v042i07">
  * Multivariate and Propensity Score Matching Software with Automated Balance Optimization:
  * The Matching package for R</a> Journal of Statistical Software, 42(7): 1-52.</li>
  * <li>[4] Kim, P. J. and Jennrich, R. I. (1970). Tables of the Exact Sampling Distribution of the
  * Two-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Criterion D_mn ,m≦n in Selected Tables in Mathematical Statistics,
  * Vol. 1, H. L. Harter and D. B. Owen, editors.</li>
  * </ul>
  * <p>
  * Note that [1] contains an error in computing h, refer to <a
  * href="https://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/MATH-437">MATH-437</a> for details.
  */
 public class KolmogorovSmirnovTest { // NOPMD - this is not a Junit test class, PMD false positive here
 
     /**
      * Bound on the number of partial sums in {@link #ksSum(double, double, int)}
      */
     protected static final int MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT = 100000;
 
     /** Convergence criterion for {@link #ksSum(double, double, int)} */
     protected static final double KS_SUM_CAUCHY_CRITERION = 1E-20;
 
     /** Convergence criterion for the sums in #pelzGood(double, double, int)} */
     protected static final double PG_SUM_RELATIVE_ERROR = 1.0e-10;
 
     /**
      * When product of sample sizes exceeds this value, 2-sample K-S test uses asymptotic
      * distribution to compute the p-value.
      */
     protected static final int LARGE_SAMPLE_PRODUCT = 10000;
 
     /**
      * RandomDataGenerator used by {@link #bootstrap(double[], double[], int)}
      * or to generate jitter to break ties in the data.
      */
     private final RandomDataGenerator gen = new RandomDataGenerator();
 
     /**
      * Construct a KolmogorovSmirnovTest instance.
      */
     public KolmogorovSmirnovTest() {
         super();
     }
 
     /**
      * Construct a KolmogorovSmirnovTest instance providing a seed for the PRNG
      * used by the {@link #bootstrap(double[], double[], int)} method.
      *
      * @param seed the seed for the PRNG
      */
     public KolmogorovSmirnovTest(long seed) {
         super();
         gen.setSeed(seed);
     }
 
     /**
      * Computes the <i>p-value</i>, or <i>observed significance level</i>, of a one-sample <a
      * href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov-Smirnov_test"> Kolmogorov-Smirnov test</a>
      * evaluating the null hypothesis that {@code data} conforms to {@code distribution}. If
      * {@code exact} is true, the distribution used to compute the p-value is computed using
      * extended precision. See {@link #cdfExact(double, int)}.
      *
      * @param distribution reference distribution
      * @param data sample being being evaluated
      * @param exact whether or not to force exact computation of the p-value
      * @return the p-value associated with the null hypothesis that {@code data} is a sample from
      *         {@code distribution}
      * @throws MathIllegalArgumentException if {@code data} does not have length at least 2
      * @throws org.hipparchus.exception.NullArgumentException if {@code data} is null
      */
     public double kolmogorovSmirnovTest(RealDistribution distribution, double[] data, boolean exact) {
         return 1d - cdf(kolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(distribution, data), data.length, exact);
     }
 
     /**
      * Computes the one-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test statistic, \(D_n=\sup_x |F_n(x)-F(x)|\) where
      * \(F\) is the distribution (cdf) function associated with {@code distribution}, \(n\) is the
      * length of {@code data} and \(F_n\) is the empirical distribution that puts mass \(1/n\) at
      * each of the values in {@code data}.
      *
      * @param distribution reference distribution
      * @param data sample being evaluated
      * @return Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic \(D_n\)
      * @throws MathIllegalArgumentException if {@code data} does not have length at least 2
      * @throws org.hipparchus.exception.NullArgumentException if {@code data} is null
      */
     public double kolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(RealDistribution distribution, double[] data) {
         checkArray(data);
         final int n = data.length;
         final double nd = n;
         final double[] dataCopy = new double[n];
         System.arraycopy(data, 0, dataCopy, 0, n);
         Arrays.sort(dataCopy);
         double d = 0d;
         for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
             final double yi = distribution.cumulativeProbability(dataCopy[i - 1]);
             final double currD = FastMath.max(yi - (i - 1) / nd, i / nd - yi);
             if (currD > d) {
                 d = currD;
             }
         }
         return d;
     }
 
     /**
      * Computes the <i>p-value</i>, or <i>observed significance level</i>, of a two-sample <a
      * href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov-Smirnov_test"> Kolmogorov-Smirnov test</a>
      * evaluating the null hypothesis that {@code x} and {@code y} are samples drawn from the same
      * probability distribution. Specifically, what is returned is an estimate of the probability
      * that the {@link #kolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(double[], double[])} associated with a randomly
      * selected partition of the combined sample into subsamples of sizes {@code x.length} and
      * {@code y.length} will strictly exceed (if {@code strict} is {@code true}) or be at least as
      * large as {@code strict = false}) as {@code kolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(x, y)}.
      * <ul>
      * <li>For small samples (where the product of the sample sizes is less than
      * {@link #LARGE_SAMPLE_PRODUCT}), the exact p-value is computed using the method presented
      * in [4], implemented in {@link #exactP(double, int, int, boolean)}. </li>
      * <li>When the product of the sample sizes exceeds {@link #LARGE_SAMPLE_PRODUCT}, the
      * asymptotic distribution of \(D_{n,m}\) is used. See {@link #approximateP(double, int, int)}
      * for details on the approximation.</li>
      * </ul><p>
      * If {@code x.length * y.length} &lt; {@link #LARGE_SAMPLE_PRODUCT} and the combined set of values in
      * {@code x} and {@code y} contains ties, random jitter is added to {@code x} and {@code y} to
      * break ties before computing \(D_{n,m}\) and the p-value. The jitter is uniformly distributed
      * on (-minDelta / 2, minDelta / 2) where minDelta is the smallest pairwise difference between
      * values in the combined sample.</p>
      * <p>
      * If ties are known to be present in the data, {@link #bootstrap(double[], double[], int, boolean)}
      * may be used as an alternative method for estimating the p-value.</p>
      *
      * @param x first sample dataset
      * @param y second sample dataset
      * @param strict whether or not the probability to compute is expressed as a strict inequality
      *        (ignored for large samples)
      * @return p-value associated with the null hypothesis that {@code x} and {@code y} represent
      *         samples from the same distribution
      * @throws MathIllegalArgumentException if either {@code x} or {@code y} does not have length at
      *         least 2
      * @throws org.hipparchus.exception.NullArgumentException if either {@code x} or {@code y} is null
      * @see #bootstrap(double[], double[], int, boolean)
      */
     public double kolmogorovSmirnovTest(double[] x, double[] y, boolean strict) {
         final long lengthProduct = (long) x.length * y.length;
         final double[] xa;
         final double[] ya;
         if (lengthProduct < LARGE_SAMPLE_PRODUCT && hasTies(x,y)) {
             xa = x.clone();
             ya = y.clone();
             fixTies(xa, ya);
         } else {
             xa = x;
             ya = y;
         }
         if (lengthProduct < LARGE_SAMPLE_PRODUCT) {
             return exactP(kolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(xa, ya), x.length, y.length, strict);
         }
         return approximateP(kolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(x, y), x.length, y.length);
     }
 
     /**
      * Computes the <i>p-value</i>, or <i>observed significance level</i>, of a two-sample <a
      * href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov-Smirnov_test"> Kolmogorov-Smirnov test</a>
      * evaluating the null hypothesis that {@code x} and {@code y} are samples drawn from the same
      * probability distribution. Assumes the strict form of the inequality used to compute the
      * p-value. See {@link #kolmogorovSmirnovTest(RealDistribution, double[], boolean)}.
      *
      * @param x first sample dataset
      * @param y second sample dataset
      * @return p-value associated with the null hypothesis that {@code x} and {@code y} represent
      *         samples from the same distribution
      * @throws MathIllegalArgumentException if either {@code x} or {@code y} does not have length at
      *         least 2
      * @throws org.hipparchus.exception.NullArgumentException if either {@code x} or {@code y} is null
      */
     public double kolmogorovSmirnovTest(double[] x, double[] y) {
         return kolmogorovSmirnovTest(x, y, true);
     }
 
     /**
      * Computes the two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test statistic, \(D_{n,m}=\sup_x |F_n(x)-F_m(x)|\)
      * where \(n\) is the length of {@code x}, \(m\) is the length of {@code y}, \(F_n\) is the
      * empirical distribution that puts mass \(1/n\) at each of the values in {@code x} and \(F_m\)
      * is the empirical distribution of the {@code y} values.
      *
      * @param x first sample
      * @param y second sample
      * @return test statistic \(D_{n,m}\) used to evaluate the null hypothesis that {@code x} and
      *         {@code y} represent samples from the same underlying distribution
      * @throws MathIllegalArgumentException if either {@code x} or {@code y} does not have length at
      *         least 2
      * @throws org.hipparchus.exception.NullArgumentException if either {@code x} or {@code y} is null
      */
     public double kolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(double[] x, double[] y) {
         return integralKolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(x, y)/((double)(x.length * (long)y.length));
     }
 
     /**
      * Computes the two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test statistic, \(D_{n,m}=\sup_x |F_n(x)-F_m(x)|\)
      * where \(n\) is the length of {@code x}, \(m\) is the length of {@code y}, \(F_n\) is the
      * empirical distribution that puts mass \(1/n\) at each of the values in {@code x} and \(F_m\)
      * is the empirical distribution of the {@code y} values. Finally \(n m D_{n,m}\) is returned
      * as long value.
      *
      * @param x first sample
      * @param y second sample
      * @return test statistic \(n m D_{n,m}\) used to evaluate the null hypothesis that {@code x} and
      *         {@code y} represent samples from the same underlying distribution
      * @throws MathIllegalArgumentException if either {@code x} or {@code y} does not have length at
      *         least 2
      * @throws org.hipparchus.exception.NullArgumentException if either {@code x} or {@code y} is null
      */
     private long integralKolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(double[] x, double[] y) {
         checkArray(x);
         checkArray(y);
         // Copy and sort the sample arrays
         final double[] sx = x.clone();
         final double[] sy = y.clone();
         Arrays.sort(sx);
         Arrays.sort(sy);
         final int n = sx.length;
         final int m = sy.length;
 
         int rankX = 0;
         int rankY = 0;
         long curD = 0l;
 
         // Find the max difference between cdf_x and cdf_y
         long supD = 0l;
         do {
             double z = Double.compare(sx[rankX], sy[rankY]) <= 0 ? sx[rankX] : sy[rankY];
             while(rankX < n && Double.compare(sx[rankX], z) == 0) {
                 rankX += 1;
                 curD += m;
             }
             while(rankY < m && Double.compare(sy[rankY], z) == 0) {
                 rankY += 1;
                 curD -= n;
             }
             if (curD > supD) {
                 supD = curD;
             }
             else if (-curD > supD) {
                 supD = -curD;
             }
         } while(rankX < n && rankY < m);
         return supD;
     }
 
     /**
      * Computes the <i>p-value</i>, or <i>observed significance level</i>, of a one-sample <a
      * href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov-Smirnov_test"> Kolmogorov-Smirnov test</a>
      * evaluating the null hypothesis that {@code data} conforms to {@code distribution}.
      *
      * @param distribution reference distribution
      * @param data sample being being evaluated
      * @return the p-value associated with the null hypothesis that {@code data} is a sample from
      *         {@code distribution}
      * @throws MathIllegalArgumentException if {@code data} does not have length at least 2
      * @throws org.hipparchus.exception.NullArgumentException if {@code data} is null
      */
     public double kolmogorovSmirnovTest(RealDistribution distribution, double[] data) {
         return kolmogorovSmirnovTest(distribution, data, false);
     }
 
     /**
      * Performs a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov-Smirnov_test"> Kolmogorov-Smirnov
      * test</a> evaluating the null hypothesis that {@code data} conforms to {@code distribution}.
      *
      * @param distribution reference distribution
      * @param data sample being being evaluated
      * @param alpha significance level of the test
      * @return true iff the null hypothesis that {@code data} is a sample from {@code distribution}
      *         can be rejected with confidence 1 - {@code alpha}
      * @throws MathIllegalArgumentException if {@code data} does not have length at least 2
      * @throws org.hipparchus.exception.NullArgumentException if {@code data} is null
      */
     public boolean kolmogorovSmirnovTest(RealDistribution distribution, double[] data, double alpha) {
         if ((alpha <= 0) || (alpha > 0.5)) {
             throw new MathIllegalArgumentException(LocalizedStatFormats.OUT_OF_BOUND_SIGNIFICANCE_LEVEL, alpha, 0, 0.5);
         }
         return kolmogorovSmirnovTest(distribution, data) < alpha;
     }
 
     /**
      * Estimates the <i>p-value</i> of a two-sample
      * <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov-Smirnov_test"> Kolmogorov-Smirnov test</a>
      * evaluating the null hypothesis that {@code x} and {@code y} are samples drawn from the same
      * probability distribution. This method estimates the p-value by repeatedly sampling sets of size
      * {@code x.length} and {@code y.length} from the empirical distribution of the combined sample.
      * When {@code strict} is true, this is equivalent to the algorithm implemented in the R function
      * {@code ks.boot}, described in <pre>
      * Jasjeet S. Sekhon. 2011. 'Multivariate and Propensity Score Matching
      * Software with Automated Balance Optimization: The Matching package for R.'
      * Journal of Statistical Software, 42(7): 1-52.
      * </pre>
      * @param x first sample
      * @param y second sample
      * @param iterations number of bootstrap resampling iterations
      * @param strict whether or not the null hypothesis is expressed as a strict inequality
      * @return estimated p-value
      */
     public double bootstrap(double[] x, double[] y, int iterations, boolean strict) {
         final int xLength = x.length;
         final int yLength = y.length;
         final double[] combined = new double[xLength + yLength];
         System.arraycopy(x, 0, combined, 0, xLength);
         System.arraycopy(y, 0, combined, xLength, yLength);
         final long d = integralKolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(x, y);
         int greaterCount = 0;
         int equalCount = 0;
         double[] curX;
         double[] curY;
         long curD;
         for (int i = 0; i < iterations; i++) {
             curX = resample(combined, xLength);
             curY = resample(combined, yLength);
             curD = integralKolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(curX, curY);
             if (curD > d) {
                 greaterCount++;
             } else if (curD == d) {
                 equalCount++;
             }
         }
         return strict ? greaterCount / (double) iterations :
             (greaterCount + equalCount) / (double) iterations;
     }
 
     /**
      * Computes {@code bootstrap(x, y, iterations, true)}.
      * This is equivalent to ks.boot(x,y, nboots=iterations) using the R Matching
      * package function. See #bootstrap(double[], double[], int, boolean).
      *
      * @param x first sample
      * @param y second sample
      * @param iterations number of bootstrap resampling iterations
      * @return estimated p-value
      */
     public double bootstrap(double[] x, double[] y, int iterations) {
         return bootstrap(x, y, iterations, true);
     }
 
     /**
      * Return a bootstrap sample (with replacement) of size k from sample.
      *
      * @param sample array to sample from
      * @param k size of bootstrap sample
      * @return bootstrap sample
      */
     private double[] resample(double[] sample, int k) {
         final int len = sample.length;
         final double[] out = new double[k];
         for (int i = 0; i < k; i++) {
             out[i] = gen.nextInt(len);
         }
         return out;
     }
 
     /**
      * Calculates {@code P(D_n < d)} using the method described in [1] with quick decisions for extreme
      * values given in [2] (see above). The result is not exact as with
      * {@link #cdfExact(double, int)} because calculations are based on
      * {@code double} rather than {@link org.hipparchus.fraction.BigFraction}.
      *
      * @param d statistic
      * @param n sample size
      * @return \(P(D_n &lt; d)\)
      * @throws MathRuntimeException if algorithm fails to convert {@code h} to a
      *         {@link org.hipparchus.fraction.BigFraction} in expressing {@code d} as \((k
      *         - h) / m\) for integer {@code k, m} and \(0 &lt;= h &lt; 1\)
      */
     public double cdf(double d, int n)
         throws MathRuntimeException {
         return cdf(d, n, false);
     }
 
     /**
      * Calculates {@code P(D_n < d)}. The result is exact in the sense that BigFraction/BigReal is
      * used everywhere at the expense of very slow execution time. Almost never choose this in real
      * applications unless you are very sure; this is almost solely for verification purposes.
      * Normally, you would choose {@link #cdf(double, int)}. See the class
      * javadoc for definitions and algorithm description.
      *
      * @param d statistic
      * @param n sample size
      * @return \(P(D_n &lt; d)\)
      * @throws MathRuntimeException if the algorithm fails to convert {@code h} to a
      *         {@link org.hipparchus.fraction.BigFraction} in expressing {@code d} as \((k
      *         - h) / m\) for integer {@code k, m} and \(0 &lt;= h &lt; 1\)
      */
     public double cdfExact(double d, int n)
         throws MathRuntimeException {
         return cdf(d, n, true);
     }
 
     /**
      * Calculates {@code P(D_n < d)} using method described in [1] with quick decisions for extreme
      * values given in [2] (see above).
      *
      * @param d statistic
      * @param n sample size
      * @param exact whether the probability should be calculated exact using
      *        {@link org.hipparchus.fraction.BigFraction} everywhere at the expense of
      *        very slow execution time, or if {@code double} should be used convenient places to
      *        gain speed. Almost never choose {@code true} in real applications unless you are very
      *        sure; {@code true} is almost solely for verification purposes.
      * @return \(P(D_n &lt; d)\)
      * @throws MathRuntimeException if algorithm fails to convert {@code h} to a
      *         {@link org.hipparchus.fraction.BigFraction} in expressing {@code d} as \((k
      *         - h) / m\) for integer {@code k, m} and \(0 \lt;= h &lt; 1\).
      */
     public double cdf(double d, int n, boolean exact)
         throws MathRuntimeException {
 
         final double ninv = 1 / ((double) n);
         final double ninvhalf = 0.5 * ninv;
 
         if (d <= ninvhalf) {
             return 0;
         } else if (ninvhalf < d && d <= ninv) {
             double res = 1;
             final double f = 2 * d - ninv;
             // n! f^n = n*f * (n-1)*f * ... * 1*x
             for (int i = 1; i <= n; ++i) {
                 res *= i * f;
             }
             return res;
         } else if (1 - ninv <= d && d < 1) {
             return 1 - 2 * Math.pow(1 - d, n);
         } else if (1 <= d) {
             return 1;
         }
         if (exact) {
             return exactK(d, n);
         }
         if (n <= 140) {
             return roundedK(d, n);
         }
         return pelzGood(d, n);
     }
 
     /**
      * Calculates the exact value of {@code P(D_n < d)} using the method described in [1] (reference
      * in class javadoc above) and {@link org.hipparchus.fraction.BigFraction} (see
      * above).
      *
      * @param d statistic
      * @param n sample size
      * @return the two-sided probability of \(P(D_n < d)\)
      * @throws MathRuntimeException if algorithm fails to convert {@code h} to a
      *         {@link org.hipparchus.fraction.BigFraction} in expressing {@code d} as \((k
      *         - h) / m\) for integer {@code k, m} and \(0 \le h < 1\).
      */
     private double exactK(double d, int n)
         throws MathRuntimeException {
 
         final int k = (int) Math.ceil(n * d);
 
         final FieldMatrix<BigFraction> H = this.createExactH(d, n);
         final FieldMatrix<BigFraction> Hpower = H.power(n);
 
         BigFraction pFrac = Hpower.getEntry(k - 1, k - 1);
 
         for (int i = 1; i <= n; ++i) {
             pFrac = pFrac.multiply(i).divide(n);
         }
 
         /*
          * BigFraction.doubleValue converts numerator to double and the denominator to double and
          * divides afterwards. That gives NaN quite easy. This does not (scale is the number of
          * digits):
          */
         return pFrac.bigDecimalValue(20, RoundingMode.HALF_UP).doubleValue();
     }
 
     /**
      * Calculates {@code P(D_n < d)} using method described in [1] and doubles (see above).
      *
      * @param d statistic
      * @param n sample size
      * @return \(P(D_n < d)\)
      */
     private double roundedK(double d, int n) {
 
         final int k = (int) Math.ceil(n * d);
         final RealMatrix H = this.createRoundedH(d, n);
         final RealMatrix Hpower = H.power(n);
 
         double pFrac = Hpower.getEntry(k - 1, k - 1);
         for (int i = 1; i <= n; ++i) {
             pFrac *= ((double) i) / n;
         }
 
         return pFrac;
     }
 
     /**
      * Computes the Pelz-Good approximation for \(P(D_n &lt; d)\) as described in [2] in the class javadoc.
      *
      * @param d value of d-statistic (x in [2])
      * @param n sample size
      * @return \(P(D_n &lt; d)\)
      */
     public double pelzGood(double d, int n) {
         // Change the variable since approximation is for the distribution evaluated at d / sqrt(n)
         final double sqrtN = FastMath.sqrt(n);
         final double z = d * sqrtN;
         final double z2 = d * d * n;
         final double z4 = z2 * z2;
         final double z6 = z4 * z2;
         final double z8 = z4 * z4;
 
         // Compute K_0(z)
         double sum = 0;
         double z2Term = MathUtils.PI_SQUARED / (8 * z2);
         int k = 1;
         for (; k < MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT; k++) {
             final double kTerm = 2 * k - 1;
             final double increment = FastMath.exp(-z2Term * kTerm * kTerm);
             sum += increment;
             if (increment <= PG_SUM_RELATIVE_ERROR * sum) {
                 break;
             }
         }
         if (k == MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT) {
             throw new MathIllegalStateException(LocalizedCoreFormats.MAX_COUNT_EXCEEDED, MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT);
         }
         double ret = sum * FastMath.sqrt(2 * FastMath.PI) / z;
 
         // K_1(z)
         // Sum is -inf to inf, but k term is always (k + 1/2) ^ 2, so really have
         // twice the sum from k = 0 to inf (k = -1 is same as 0, -2 same as 1, ...)
         final double twoZ2 = 2 * z2;
         sum = 0;
         for (k = 0; k < MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT; k++) {
             final double kTerm = k + 0.5;
             final double kTerm2 = kTerm * kTerm;
             final double increment = (MathUtils.PI_SQUARED * kTerm2 - z2) * FastMath.exp(-MathUtils.PI_SQUARED * kTerm2 / twoZ2);
             sum += increment;
             if (FastMath.abs(increment) < PG_SUM_RELATIVE_ERROR * FastMath.abs(sum)) {
                 break;
             }
         }
         if (k == MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT) {
             throw new MathIllegalStateException(LocalizedCoreFormats.MAX_COUNT_EXCEEDED, MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT);
         }
         final double sqrtHalfPi = FastMath.sqrt(FastMath.PI / 2);
         // Instead of doubling sum, divide by 3 instead of 6
         ret += sum * sqrtHalfPi / (3 * z4 * sqrtN);
 
         // K_2(z)
         // Same drill as K_1, but with two doubly infinite sums, all k terms are even powers.
         final double z4Term = 2 * z4;
         final double z6Term = 6 * z6;
         z2Term = 5 * z2;
         final double pi4 = MathUtils.PI_SQUARED * MathUtils.PI_SQUARED;
         sum = 0;
         for (k = 0; k < MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT; k++) {
             final double kTerm = k + 0.5;
             final double kTerm2 = kTerm * kTerm;
             final double increment =  (z6Term + z4Term + MathUtils.PI_SQUARED * (z4Term - z2Term) * kTerm2 +
                     pi4 * (1 - twoZ2) * kTerm2 * kTerm2) * FastMath.exp(-MathUtils.PI_SQUARED * kTerm2 / twoZ2);
             sum += increment;
             if (FastMath.abs(increment) < PG_SUM_RELATIVE_ERROR * FastMath.abs(sum)) {
                 break;
             }
         }
         if (k == MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT) {
             throw new MathIllegalStateException(LocalizedCoreFormats.MAX_COUNT_EXCEEDED, MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT);
         }
         double sum2 = 0;
         for (k = 1; k < MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT; k++) {
             final double kTerm2 = k * k;
             final double increment = MathUtils.PI_SQUARED * kTerm2 * FastMath.exp(-MathUtils.PI_SQUARED * kTerm2 / twoZ2);
             sum2 += increment;
             if (FastMath.abs(increment) < PG_SUM_RELATIVE_ERROR * FastMath.abs(sum2)) {
                 break;
             }
         }
         if (k == MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT) {
             throw new MathIllegalStateException(LocalizedCoreFormats.MAX_COUNT_EXCEEDED, MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT);
         }
         // Again, adjust coefficients instead of doubling sum, sum2
         ret += (sqrtHalfPi / n) * (sum / (36 * z2 * z2 * z2 * z) - sum2 / (18 * z2 * z));
 
         // K_3(z) One more time with feeling - two doubly infinite sums, all k powers even.
         // Multiply coefficient denominators by 2, so omit doubling sums.
         final double pi6 = pi4 * MathUtils.PI_SQUARED;
         sum = 0;
         for (k = 0; k < MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT; k++) {
             final double kTerm = k + 0.5;
             final double kTerm2 = kTerm * kTerm;
             final double kTerm4 = kTerm2 * kTerm2;
             final double kTerm6 = kTerm4 * kTerm2;
             final double increment = (pi6 * kTerm6 * (5 - 30 * z2) + pi4 * kTerm4 * (-60 * z2 + 212 * z4) +
                             MathUtils.PI_SQUARED * kTerm2 * (135 * z4 - 96 * z6) - 30 * z6 - 90 * z8) *
                     FastMath.exp(-MathUtils.PI_SQUARED * kTerm2 / twoZ2);
             sum += increment;
             if (FastMath.abs(increment) < PG_SUM_RELATIVE_ERROR * FastMath.abs(sum)) {
                 break;
             }
         }
         if (k == MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT) {
             throw new MathIllegalStateException(LocalizedCoreFormats.MAX_COUNT_EXCEEDED, MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT);
         }
         sum2 = 0;
         for (k = 1; k < MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT; k++) {
             final double kTerm2 = k * k;
             final double kTerm4 = kTerm2 * kTerm2;
             final double increment = (-pi4 * kTerm4 + 3 * MathUtils.PI_SQUARED * kTerm2 * z2) *
                     FastMath.exp(-MathUtils.PI_SQUARED * kTerm2 / twoZ2);
             sum2 += increment;
             if (FastMath.abs(increment) < PG_SUM_RELATIVE_ERROR * FastMath.abs(sum2)) {
                 break;
             }
         }
         if (k == MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT) {
             throw new MathIllegalStateException(LocalizedCoreFormats.MAX_COUNT_EXCEEDED, MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT);
         }
         return ret + (sqrtHalfPi / (sqrtN * n)) * (sum / (3240 * z6 * z4) +
                 + sum2 / (108 * z6));
 
     }
 
     /***
      * Creates {@code H} of size {@code m x m} as described in [1] (see above).
      *
      * @param d statistic
      * @param n sample size
      * @return H matrix
      * @throws MathIllegalArgumentException if fractional part is greater than 1
      * @throws MathIllegalStateException if algorithm fails to convert {@code h} to a
      *         {@link org.hipparchus.fraction.BigFraction} in expressing {@code d} as \((k
      *         - h) / m\) for integer {@code k, m} and \(0 <= h < 1\).
      */
     private FieldMatrix<BigFraction> createExactH(double d, int n)
         throws MathIllegalArgumentException, MathIllegalStateException {
 
         final int k = (int) Math.ceil(n * d);
         final int m = 2 * k - 1;
         final double hDouble = k - n * d;
         if (hDouble >= 1) {
             throw new MathIllegalArgumentException(LocalizedCoreFormats.NUMBER_TOO_LARGE_BOUND_EXCLUDED,
                                                    hDouble, 1.0);
         }
         BigFraction h;
         try {
             h = new BigFraction(hDouble, 1.0e-20, 10000);
         } catch (final MathIllegalStateException e1) {
             try {
                 h = new BigFraction(hDouble, 1.0e-10, 10000);
             } catch (final MathIllegalStateException e2) {
                 h = new BigFraction(hDouble, 1.0e-5, 10000);
             }
         }
         final BigFraction[][] Hdata = new BigFraction[m][m];
 
         /*
          * Start by filling everything with either 0 or 1.
          */
         for (int i = 0; i < m; ++i) {
             for (int j = 0; j < m; ++j) {
                 if (i - j + 1 < 0) {
                     Hdata[i][j] = BigFraction.ZERO;
                 } else {
                     Hdata[i][j] = BigFraction.ONE;
                 }
             }
         }
 
         /*
          * Setting up power-array to avoid calculating the same value twice: hPowers[0] = h^1 ...
          * hPowers[m-1] = h^m
          */
         final BigFraction[] hPowers = new BigFraction[m];
         hPowers[0] = h;
         for (int i = 1; i < m; ++i) {
             hPowers[i] = h.multiply(hPowers[i - 1]);
         }
 
         /*
          * First column and last row has special values (each other reversed).
          */
         for (int i = 0; i < m; ++i) {
             Hdata[i][0] = Hdata[i][0].subtract(hPowers[i]);
             Hdata[m - 1][i] = Hdata[m - 1][i].subtract(hPowers[m - i - 1]);
         }
 
         /*
          * [1] states: "For 1/2 < h < 1 the bottom left element of the matrix should be (1 - 2*h^m +
          * (2h - 1)^m )/m!" Since 0 <= h < 1, then if h > 1/2 is sufficient to check:
          */
         if (h.compareTo(BigFraction.ONE_HALF) == 1) {
             Hdata[m - 1][0] = Hdata[m - 1][0].add(h.multiply(2).subtract(1).pow(m));
         }
 
         /*
          * Aside from the first column and last row, the (i, j)-th element is 1/(i - j + 1)! if i -
          * j + 1 >= 0, else 0. 1's and 0's are already put, so only division with (i - j + 1)! is
          * needed in the elements that have 1's. There is no need to calculate (i - j + 1)! and then
          * divide - small steps avoid overflows. Note that i - j + 1 > 0 <=> i + 1 > j instead of
          * j'ing all the way to m. Also note that it is started at g = 2 because dividing by 1 isn't
          * really necessary.
          */
         for (int i = 0; i < m; ++i) {
             for (int j = 0; j < i + 1; ++j) {
                 if (i - j + 1 > 0) {
                     for (int g = 2; g <= i - j + 1; ++g) {
                         Hdata[i][j] = Hdata[i][j].divide(g);
                     }
                 }
             }
         }
         return new Array2DRowFieldMatrix<>(BigFractionField.getInstance(), Hdata);
     }
 
     /***
      * Creates {@code H} of size {@code m x m} as described in [1] (see above)
      * using double-precision.
      *
      * @param d statistic
      * @param n sample size
      * @return H matrix
      * @throws MathIllegalArgumentException if fractional part is greater than 1
      */
     private RealMatrix createRoundedH(double d, int n)
         throws MathIllegalArgumentException {
 
         final int k = (int) Math.ceil(n * d);
         final int m = 2 * k - 1;
         final double h = k - n * d;
         if (h >= 1) {
             throw new MathIllegalArgumentException(LocalizedCoreFormats.NUMBER_TOO_LARGE_BOUND_EXCLUDED,
                                                    h, 1.0);
         }
         final double[][] Hdata = new double[m][m];
 
         /*
          * Start by filling everything with either 0 or 1.
          */
         for (int i = 0; i < m; ++i) {
             for (int j = 0; j < m; ++j) {
                 if (i - j + 1 < 0) {
                     Hdata[i][j] = 0;
                 } else {
                     Hdata[i][j] = 1;
                 }
             }
         }
 
         /*
          * Setting up power-array to avoid calculating the same value twice: hPowers[0] = h^1 ...
          * hPowers[m-1] = h^m
          */
         final double[] hPowers = new double[m];
         hPowers[0] = h;
         for (int i = 1; i < m; ++i) {
             hPowers[i] = h * hPowers[i - 1];
         }
 
         /*
          * First column and last row has special values (each other reversed).
          */
         for (int i = 0; i < m; ++i) {
             Hdata[i][0] = Hdata[i][0] - hPowers[i];
             Hdata[m - 1][i] -= hPowers[m - i - 1];
         }
 
         /*
          * [1] states: "For 1/2 < h < 1 the bottom left element of the matrix should be (1 - 2*h^m +
          * (2h - 1)^m )/m!" Since 0 <= h < 1, then if h > 1/2 is sufficient to check:
          */
         if (Double.compare(h, 0.5) > 0) {
             Hdata[m - 1][0] += FastMath.pow(2 * h - 1, m);
         }
 
         /*
          * Aside from the first column and last row, the (i, j)-th element is 1/(i - j + 1)! if i -
          * j + 1 >= 0, else 0. 1's and 0's are already put, so only division with (i - j + 1)! is
          * needed in the elements that have 1's. There is no need to calculate (i - j + 1)! and then
          * divide - small steps avoid overflows. Note that i - j + 1 > 0 <=> i + 1 > j instead of
          * j'ing all the way to m. Also note that it is started at g = 2 because dividing by 1 isn't
          * really necessary.
          */
         for (int i = 0; i < m; ++i) {
             for (int j = 0; j < i + 1; ++j) {
                 if (i - j + 1 > 0) {
                     for (int g = 2; g <= i - j + 1; ++g) {
                         Hdata[i][j] /= g;
                     }
                 }
             }
         }
         return MatrixUtils.createRealMatrix(Hdata);
     }
 
     /**
      * Verifies that {@code array} has length at least 2.
      *
      * @param array array to test
      * @throws org.hipparchus.exception.NullArgumentException if array is null
      * @throws MathIllegalArgumentException if array is too short
      */
     private void checkArray(double[] array) {
         MathUtils.checkNotNull(array);
         if (array.length < 2) {
             throw new MathIllegalArgumentException(LocalizedCoreFormats.INSUFFICIENT_OBSERVED_POINTS_IN_SAMPLE, array.length,
                                                    2);
         }
     }
 
     /**
      * Computes \( 1 + 2 \sum_{i=1}^\infty (-1)^i e^{-2 i^2 t^2} \) stopping when successive partial
      * sums are within {@code tolerance} of one another, or when {@code maxIterations} partial sums
      * have been computed. If the sum does not converge before {@code maxIterations} iterations a
      * {@link MathIllegalStateException} is thrown.
      *
      * @param t argument
      * @param tolerance Cauchy criterion for partial sums
      * @param maxIterations maximum number of partial sums to compute
      * @return Kolmogorov sum evaluated at t
      * @throws MathIllegalStateException if the series does not converge
      */
     public double ksSum(double t, double tolerance, int maxIterations) {
         if (t == 0.0) {
             return 0.0;
         }
 
         // TODO: for small t (say less than 1), the alternative expansion in part 3 of [1]
         // from class javadoc should be used.
 
         final double x = -2 * t * t;
         int sign = -1;
         long i = 1;
         double partialSum = 0.5d;
         double delta = 1;
         while (delta > tolerance && i < maxIterations) {
             delta = FastMath.exp(x * i * i);
             partialSum += sign * delta;
             sign *= -1;
             i++;
         }
         if (i == maxIterations) {
             throw new MathIllegalStateException(LocalizedCoreFormats.MAX_COUNT_EXCEEDED, maxIterations);
         }
         return partialSum * 2;
     }
 
     /**
      * Computes \(P(D_{n,m} &gt; d)\) if {@code strict} is {@code true}; otherwise \(P(D_{n,m} \ge
      * d)\), where \(D_{n,m}\) is the 2-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic. See
      * {@link #kolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(double[], double[])} for the definition of \(D_{n,m}\).
      * <p>
      * The returned probability is exact, implemented by unwinding the recursive function
      * definitions presented in [4] from the class javadoc.
      * </p>
      *
      * @param d D-statistic value
      * @param n first sample size
      * @param m second sample size
      * @param strict whether or not the probability to compute is expressed as a strict inequality
      * @return probability that a randomly selected m-n partition of m + n generates \(D_{n,m}\)
      *         greater than (resp. greater than or equal to) {@code d}
      */
     public double exactP(double d, int n, int m, boolean strict) {
         if (d < 1 / (double)( m * n)) {
             return 1.0;
         } else if (d >= 1) {
             return 0;
         }
         double normalizeD = normalizeD(d, n, m);
         if (!strict) {
             normalizeD -= 1 / ((double)n * m);
         }
         return exactPAtMeshpoint(normalizeD, n, m);
     }
 
     /**
      * Normalizes a value to an integral multiple of 1/mn between 0 and 1.
      * If d < 1/mn, 0 is returned; if d > 1, 1 is returned; if d is very close
      * to an integral multiple of 1/mn, that value is returned; otherwise the
      * returned value is the smallest multiple of 1/mn less than or equal to d.
      *
      * @param d d value
      * @param n first sample size
      * @param m second sample size
      * @return d value suitable for input to exactPAtMeshpoint(d, m, n)
      */
     private double normalizeD(double d, int n, int m) {
         final double resolution = 1 / ((double)n * m);
         final double tol = 1e-12;
 
         // If d is smaller that the first mesh point, return 0
         // If greater than 1, return 1
         if (d < resolution) {
             return 0;
         } else if (d > 1) {
             return 1;
         }
 
         // Normalize d to the smallest mesh point less than or equal to d;
         // except if d is less than tol less than the next mesh point, bump it up
         final double resolutions = d / resolution;
         final double ceil = FastMath.ceil(resolutions);
         if (ceil - resolutions < tol) {
            return ceil * resolution;
         } else {
            return FastMath.floor(resolutions) * resolution;
         }
 
     }
 
     /**
      * Computes \(P(D_{n,m} &gt; d)\) where \(D_{n,m}\) is the 2-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic. See
      * {@link #kolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(double[], double[])} for the definition of \(D_{n,m}\).
      * <p>
      * The returned probability is exact, implemented by unwinding the recursive function
      * definitions presented in [4].
      *
      * @param d D-statistic value (must be a "meshpoint" - i.e., a possible actual value of D(m,n)).
      * @param n first sample size
      * @param m second sample size
      * @return probability that a randomly selected m-n partition of m + n generates \(D_{n,m}\)
      *         greater than (resp. greater than or equal to) {@code d}
      */
     private double exactPAtMeshpoint(double d, int n, int m) {
         final int nn = FastMath.max(n, m);
         final int mm = FastMath.min(n, m);
         final double[] u = new double[nn + 2];
         final double k = mm * nn * d + 0.5;
         u[1] = 1d;
         for (int j = 1; j < nn + 1; j++) {
             u[j + 1] = 1;
             if (mm * j > k) {
                 u[j + 1] = 0;
             }
         }
         for (int i = 1; i < mm + 1; i++) {
             final double w = ((double) i) / (i + nn);
             u[1] = w * u[1];
             if (nn * i > k) {
                 u[1] = 0;
             }
             for (int j = 1; j < nn + 1; j++) {
                 u[j + 1] = u[j] + u[j + 1] * w;
                 if (FastMath.abs(nn * i - mm * j) > k) {
                     u[j + 1] = 0;
                 }
             }
         }
         return 1 - u[nn + 1];
     }
 
     /**
      * Uses the Kolmogorov-Smirnov distribution to approximate \(P(D_{n,m} &gt; d)\) where \(D_{n,m}\)
      * is the 2-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic. See
      * {@link #kolmogorovSmirnovStatistic(double[], double[])} for the definition of \(D_{n,m}\).
      * <p>
      * Specifically, what is returned is \(1 - k(d \sqrt{mn / (m + n)})\) where \(k(t) = 1 + 2
      * \sum_{i=1}^\infty (-1)^i e^{-2 i^2 t^2}\). See {@link #ksSum(double, double, int)} for
      * details on how convergence of the sum is determined. This implementation passes {@code ksSum}
      * {@link #KS_SUM_CAUCHY_CRITERION} as {@code tolerance} and
      * {@link #MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT} as {@code maxIterations}.
      * </p>
      *
      * @param d D-statistic value
      * @param n first sample size
      * @param m second sample size
      * @return approximate probability that a randomly selected m-n partition of m + n generates
      *         \(D_{n,m}\) greater than {@code d}
      */
     public double approximateP(double d, int n, int m) {
         final double dm = m;
         final double dn = n;
         return 1 - ksSum(d * FastMath.sqrt((dm * dn) / (dm + dn)),
                          KS_SUM_CAUCHY_CRITERION, MAXIMUM_PARTIAL_SUM_COUNT);
     }
 
     /**
      * Fills a boolean array randomly with a fixed number of {@code true} values.
      * The method uses a simplified version of the Fisher-Yates shuffle algorithm.
      * By processing first the {@code true} values followed by the remaining {@code false} values
      * less random numbers need to be generated. The method is optimized for the case
      * that the number of {@code true} values is larger than or equal to the number of
      * {@code false} values.
      *
      * @param b boolean array
      * @param numberOfTrueValues number of {@code true} values the boolean array should finally have
      * @param rng random data generator
      */
     static void fillBooleanArrayRandomlyWithFixedNumberTrueValues(final boolean[] b, final int numberOfTrueValues, final RandomGenerator rng) {
         Arrays.fill(b, true);
         for (int k = numberOfTrueValues; k < b.length; k++) {
             final int r = rng.nextInt(k + 1);
             b[(b[r]) ? r : k] = false;
         }
     }
 
     /**
      * If there are no ties in the combined dataset formed from x and y, this
      * method is a no-op.  If there are ties, a uniform random deviate in
      * (-minDelta / 2, minDelta / 2) - {0} is added to each value in x and y, where
      * minDelta is the minimum difference between unequal values in the combined
      * sample.  A fixed seed is used to generate the jitter, so repeated activations
      * with the same input arrays result in the same values.
      *
      * NOTE: if there are ties in the data, this method overwrites the data in
      * x and y with the jittered values.
      *
      * @param x first sample
      * @param y second sample
      */
     private void fixTies(double[] x, double[] y) {
        final double[] values = MathArrays.unique(MathArrays.concatenate(x,y));
        if (values.length == x.length + y.length) {
            return;  // There are no ties
        }
 
        // Find the smallest difference between values, or 1 if all values are the same
        double minDelta = 1;
        double prev = values[0];
        for (int i = 1; i < values.length; i++) {
           final double delta = prev - values[i];
           if (delta < minDelta) {
               minDelta = delta;
           }
           prev = values[i];
        }
        minDelta /= 2;
 
        // Add jitter using a fixed seed (so same arguments always give same results),
        // low-initialization-overhead generator
        gen.setSeed(100);
 
        // It is theoretically possible that jitter does not break ties, so repeat
        // until all ties are gone.  Bound the loop and throw MIE if bound is exceeded.
        int ct = 0;
        boolean ties;
        do {
            jitter(x, minDelta);
            jitter(y, minDelta);
            ties = hasTies(x, y);
            ct++;
        } while (ties && ct < 1000);
        if (ties) {
            throw MathRuntimeException.createInternalError(); // Should never happen
        }
     }
 
     /**
      * Returns true iff there are ties in the combined sample
      * formed from x and y.
      *
      * @param x first sample
      * @param y second sample
      * @return true if x and y together contain ties
      */
     private static boolean hasTies(double[] x, double[] y) {
         final HashSet<Double> values = new HashSet<>();
         for (double value : x) {
             if (!values.add(value)) {
                 return true;
             }
         }
         for (double v : y) {
             if (!values.add(v)) {
                 return true;
             }
         }
         return false;
     }
 
     /**
      * Adds random jitter to {@code data} using uniform deviates between {@code -delta} and {@code delta}.
      * <p>
      * Note that jitter is applied in-place - i.e., the array
      * values are overwritten with the result of applying jitter.</p>
      *
      * @param data input/output data array - entries overwritten by the method
      * @param delta max magnitude of jitter
      * @throws NullPointerException if either of the parameters is null
      */
     private void jitter(double[] data, double delta) {
         for (int i = 0; i < data.length; i++) {
             data[i] += gen.nextUniform(-delta, delta);
         }
     }
 
 }